Plant growth is affected by a variety of physical and chemical factors. Physical factors include available light, day length, moisture and temperature. Chemical factors include minerals, nitrates, cofactors, nutrient substances and plant growth regulators or hormones, for example, auxins, cytokinins and gibberellins.
Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) is a naturally-occurring plant growth hormone identified in plants. IAA has been shown to be directly responsible for increase in growth in plants in vivo and in vitro. The characteristics influenced by IAA include cell elongation, internodal distance (height), leaf surface area and crop yield. IAA and other compounds exhibiting hormonal regulatory activity similar to that of IAA are included in a class of plant regulators called "auxins."
Compounds known to function as auxins in plants include, for example, 4-chloroindole-3-acetic acid (4-Cl-IAA) which is a naturally occurring plant growth regulator, acting to induce stem elongation and to promote root formation. Whereas IAA is found in most organs of a plant, 4-Cl-IAA was shown to be present in immature and mature seeds of Pisum sativum, but not in any other organ (Ulvskov et al. (1992) 188:182-189). Some synthetic auxins include naphthalene-1-acetic acid (NAA), 5,6-dichloro-indole-3-acetic acid (5,6-Cl.sub.2 -IAA), 4-chloro-2-methylphenoxyacetic acid (MCPA); 2,4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4D); 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T); 2-(4-chloro-2-methylphenoxy) propionic acid (CMPP); 4-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy) butyric acid (2,4-DB); 2,4,5-trichlorobenzoic acid (TBA); and 3,5-dichloro-2-methoxybenzoic acid (dicamba), for example. All the above acids are active in the form of their salts and esters, such as their sodium, potassium, ammonium, dimethylamine and ethanolamine salts, and their lower alkyl esters. Many of these synthetic auxins are being used commercially as effective herbicides and some of them are known to adversely affect morphogenesis of treated plants.
Preparations based on cytokinins, such as 6-furfurylamino purine (kinetin) and 6-benzylamino purine (BAP), are also known to be growth stimulators. However, cytokinin-based preparations are most effective in combination with auxins. While the mechanism by which cytokinins affect the growth cycle of plants is far from being understood, it is apparent that they affect leaf growth and prevent aging in certain plants.
It is a general objective in the field to successfully regenerate plants of major crop varieties using methods such as tissue culture and genetic engineering. The art of plant tissue culture has been an area of active research for many years but over the past five to ten years an intensified scientific effort has been made to develop regenerable plant tissue culture procedures for the important agricultural crops such as maize, wheat, rice, soybeans, and cotton.
In vitro culture techniques are well established in plant breeding (Reinert, J., and Bajaj, Y. P. S., eds. (1977) Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture, Berlin: Springer; Simmonds, N. W. (1979) Principles of Crop Improvement, London: Longman; Vasil, I. K., Ahuja, M. K. and Vasil, V. (1979) "Plant tissue cultures in genetics and plant breeding," Adv. Genet. 20:127-215). First, embryo culture has, for decades, been a valuable adjunct to making difficult interspecific crosses. Second, more recent but also well established, is shoot-tip culture, which finds uses in rapid clonal multiplication, development of virus-free clones and genetic resource conservation work. Both techniques depend upon the retention of organizational integrity of the meristem. A step further takes us to callus, cell, and protoplast cultures in which organization is lost but can in most cases be recovered. A step further still takes us to in vitro hybridization, which has, after regeneration, yielded interspecific amphidiploids. The technique may provide desired amphidiploids which cannot be made by conventional means, and presents possibilities for somatic recombination by some variant of it. The foregoing techniques are widely in use (Chaleff, R. S. (1981) Genetics of Higher Plants, Applications of Cell Culture, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
Plant genetic engineering techniques enable the following steps: (a) identification of a specific gene; (b) isolation and cloning of the gene; (c) transfer of the gene to recipient plant host cells: (d) integration, transcription and translation of the DNA in the recipient cells; and (e) multiplication and use of the transgenic plant (T. Kosuge, C. P. Meredith and A. Hollaender, eds (1983) Genetic Engineering of Plants, 26:5-25; Rogers et al. (1988) Methods for Plant Molecular Biology [A. Weissbach and H. Weissbach, eds.] Academic Press, Inc., San Diego, Calif.). Newly inserted foreign genes have been shown to be stably maintained during plant regeneration and are transmitted to progeny as typical Mendelian traits (Horsch et al. (1984) Science 223:496, and DeBlock et al. (1984) EMBO 3:1681). The foreign genes retain their normal tissue specific and developmental expression patterns.
Successful transformation and regeneration techniques have been demonstrated in the prior art for many plant species. The Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation system has proved to be efficient for many dicotyledonous plant species. For example, Barton et al. (1983, Cell 32:1033) reported the transformation and regeneration of tobacco plants, and Chang et al. (1994, Planta 5:551-558) described stable genetic transformation of Arabidopsis thaliana.
The Agrobacterium method for gene transfer was also applied to monocotyledonous plants, e.g.,in plants in the Liliaceae and Amaryllidaceae families (Hooykaas-Van Slogteren et al., 1984, Nature 311:763-764) and in Dioscorea bulbifera (yam) (Schafer et al., 1987, Nature 327:529-532); however, this method did not appear to be efficient for the transformation of graminaceous monocots, which include such food crops as wheat, rice and corn.
Transformation of food crops was obtained with alternative methods, e.g., by polyethylene glycol (PEG)-facilitated DNA uptake (Uchimiya et al. (1986) Mol. Gen. Genet. 204:204-207) and electroporation (Fromm et al. (1986) Nature 319:791-793), both of which used protoplasts as transfer targets. Monocot and dicot tissues may be transformed by bombardment of tissues by DNA-coated particles (Wang et al. (1988) Plant Mol. Biol. 11:433-439; Wu, in Plant Biotechnology (1989), Kung and Arntzen, Eds., Butterworth Publishers, Stoneham, Mass.). Regeneration was described in rice (Abdullah et al. (1986) Bio/Technology 4:1087-1090) and maize (Rhodes et al. (1988) Bio/Technology 6:56-60 and (1988) Science 240:204-207).